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2
THEORIES OF
DEVELOPMENT:
Interpreting
the Lifespan
Summary Outline
I. Why Study
Theories?
A. Provides an organizational structure for
vast amounts of information
B. Guides research
1. Theoretical orientation guides
hypotheses and directs method
2. Provides a framework within which to
interpret results
C.
Helps in comparison and contrast of
different belief systems
D.
Furthers the science and application of
developmental principles
II. Psychoanalytic
Theories
A. Freud’s theory of the development of personality
1. Emphasis on the role of the unconscious
2. Stresses importance of early years
B. Freud’s five stages of personality
development
1. Age specific
a. Oral
b. Anal
c. Phallic
d.
Latency
e. Genital
2. Defense mechanisms as coping strategies
C. Freud’s structures of the mind and their
purposes
1. Fueled by psychic energy or libido
2. Emerge sequentially
3. Seek to strike balance
a. Id
b. Ego
c. Superego
D. Memory
1.
Unconscious vs. conscious
III. Psychosocial
Theory
A. Erikson’s theory of development:
epigenesis
1. Emphasis on the impact of social
experiences
2. Each stage of growth characterized by a
life crisis
3. Extends through the lifespan
4. Cross-cultural
influences
B. Erikson’s
eight stages of psychosocial development
1. Basic trust vs. mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3. Initiative vs. guilt
4. Industry vs. inferiority
5. Identity and repudiation vs. identity
confusion
6. Intimacy and solidarity vs. isolation
7. Generativity vs. stagnation
8. Integrity vs. despair
IV. Cognitive
Theories
A. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
1. Emphasis on the influence of thought
processes
2. Progressive formation of sophisticated
cognitive structures
a. Actively construct meaning within the
environment
b. Understanding object permanence
3. Piaget’s Stages
a. Sensorimotor
b. Preoperations
c. Concrete operations
d. Formal operations
4. Functional invariants
a. Adaptation to the environment
i. Assimilation—how cognitive structures incorporate
data
ii. Accommodation—how cognitive structures change
iii. Equilibrium—the balance between assimilation and
accommodation
b. Organization
5. Schemes—Piaget
a. Organized patterns of thought and
action
b. Basic building blocks of thought
V. Sociocultural
Theory
A. Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
B. Three fundamental themes
1. Unique manner of identification and use
of theory of development
2. Social origin of the mind
a. Intrapsycholgical: elementary,
biological processes
b. Interpsychological:
processes shaped by social and
cultural
processes
c. Internalization
3. Importance of speech in development
C. Zone
of proximal development
1. Influence of social interaction on
cognitive development
VI. The
Behavioral Approach
A. Pavlov’s and Watson’s classical
conditioning
1. Experiment with dogs and ringing bell
2. Involuntary process elicited through a
learning process
B. Skinner’s operant conditioning
1. Use of consequences to shape behavior
2. Importance of reinforcement, punishment
3. Development is continuous (vs. marked
stages)
4. Environment key to understanding
behavior
5. Behavior is a causal chain of three
links
a. Stimulus
b. Response
c. Consequences
i. Reinforcement
ii. Punishment
iii. Extinction = no attendant consequence 6. Two kinds of reinforcement
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
C. Bandura’s social cognitive learning
1. Observational learning
2. Results of observing others as well as
direct experience of consequences
a. Importance and impact of modeling
i. Strengthen
or weaken existing responses
ii. Cause the reappearance of forgotten
responses
iii. Elicit
new behaviors
b. Can contribute to self-efficacy
i.
Goal-setting
ii Persistence
3. Social (cognition) learning theory
VII.
A Bioecological Model
A. Reciprocal interactions are
bidirectional
1. Results in change
B.
Componential model
1. Proximal processes
2. Person and the individual’s
contribution
3. Context and the environment
4. Time
C. Bronfenbrenner’s
Interactional (nested) System
1. Microsystem
2. Mesosystem
3. Exosystem
4. Macrosystem
5. Chronosystem—added element of time
VIII. Developmental
Theory: Current status and future
directions
A. Need multidimensional research
B. Focus on change that occurs over the
lifespan
1. Interaction among levels of development
2. Developmental systems theory
a. Popularized by Lerner, Gottlieb, etc.
b. Constant, reciprocal interactions in
heredity and environment
c. Construct our own changing view of the
world in context of several influences
i. Individual
characteristics
ii. Context
or environment
iii. Relationship between individual
characteristics and context
iv. Time
3.
No single, primary determinant or causal
influence on behavior, development
IX. Unique
theories of development
A.
Life course theory by Elder
1.
Focus on changes in aging over the
lifespan
B.
Evolutionary developmental psychology
1.
Darwin’s principle of natural selection
a. Importance of gene action in
development
C. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
1. Importance of growing/developing to
achieve potential
2. Five types of needs
a. Physiological (hunger and sleep)
b. Safety (security, protection,
stability, free from anxiety, fear)
c. Love and belonging (need for family and
friends)
d. Esteem (positive opinion of self and
also by others)
e. Self-actualization (achieving
potential)
3. Only 2% of population achieves all five
levels
X. From
Neurons to Neighborhoods:
The Science of Early Childhood
Development
A.
Study by National Research Council Institute of Medicine (2000)
1. Synthesis of many years of early
childhood development studies
2. Goal is to improve policies aimed at
raising/educating children
XI. Conclusion
& Summary
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to
address the following:
1. How does psychoanalytic theory explain
development across the lifespan?
2. Identify
and describe the developmental stages in Freud’s theory.
3. Compare and contrast:
o
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory vs.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory.
o
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
vs. Vygotsky’s cognitive structural theory.
4. Describe defense mechanisms. Give an
example of one.
5. What are Erikson’s eight stages of
human development? What is a life crisis?
6. Identify
and explain key concepts of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
7. What is the behavioral perspective on
development?
8. What are the key points of
reinforcement in Skinner’s operant conditioning theory?
9. What did Bronfenbrenner believe to be
the cornerstone of childhood development?
10. What is the status of current
developmental theory?
11. Describe
how the process of change—assimilation and accommodation—refines one’s
concepts.
12. Describe
the role of culture in development.
13. Examine
the role of social processes in Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.
14. Explain
the role of reinforcement, punishment, and extinction in Skinner’s behavioral
theory.
15. Briefly
discuss life course theory and evolutionary developmental psychology.
16. What
is the status of current developmental theory?
Key Terms
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· accommodation
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· mesosystem
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·
adaptation
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· microsystem
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·
assimilation
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·
modeling
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bioecological model
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·
negative reinforcement
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· classical conditioning
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·
object permanence
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·
cognitive structures
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·
observational learning
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·
defense mechanisms
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·
operant
conditioning
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·
developmental systems theory
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·
organization
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·
ego
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·
positive reinforcement
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·
equilibration
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·
psychoanalytic theory
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·
evolutionary developmental
psychology
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·
psychosocial theory
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·
exosystem
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·
punishment
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·
extinction
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·
reciprocal interactions
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·
id
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·
reinforcement
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·
identity crisis
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self-efficacy
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·
information-processing theory
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social (cognitive) learning theory
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·
life course theory
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·
superego
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·
life crisis
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·
theory
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·
macrosystem
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·
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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Lecture Suggestions
1. Truth
or Consequences: Why We Study Theories
Theories are not to
be proven true or false. Rather, their usefulness lies in their ability to
generate questions. Take, for example, the studies conducted by D. O. Hebb.
Hebb was a psychologist and theorist who made significant contributions to the
advancement of neuropsychology. He wanted to investigate how neurons in the
brain contributed to the process of learning. He spent many years studying
brain surgery and human behavior. In 1949, he wrote The Organization of Behavior. In the book, Hebb was able to fuse
for the first time the biology of the brain together with the workings of the
mind. Hebb’s research fueled further investigations into the biological
functioning of the brain and the workings of neurons. Later work in the field
of neurology discovered a chemical process that prompts the firing of neurons
in the brain. But Hebb’s initial theory remained as a cornerstone to help prompt
further investigation into the next theory of human development.
Hebb’s theory was
not true, but it was useful to get us to the next step of research. Engage
students in a discussion emphasizing the importance of theories and how and why
they evolve. Explore the meaning of “finding the truth” versus “theorizing” in
human development.
2. Similarities
and Differences Between Freud and Erikson
Psychoanalytic theory describes
developmental changes in a personality and one’s sense of self. Freud's and
Erikson’s theories of personality development are both grounded in
psychoanalytic theory, but each theory has significant contextual differences.
Both Freud and Erikson agree:
·
a person's success in moving through
various stages of development shapes his or her personality (stage theorists),
·
personality is a result of the
interaction of internal needs and response to those needs from significant
people in the environment and
·
unconscious and conscious motives
determine behavior.
Differences between Freud and Erikson:
·
Freud’s drive theory focuses on the
importance of meeting instinctual drives, the sexual drive, the life-preserving
drive, and the aggressive drive.
·
Freud argued that stage changes were
caused by maturational changes in the nervous system that change the focus in
body sensitivity, thus changing one’s internal drives.
·
Erikson believed that behavior is best
understood by focusing on the drive for identity, a cognitive process that is a
result of changes in one’s social environment and individual maturation.
·
Erikson theorized that cognitive skills
develop independently and are not simply a function of basic gratification.
Erikson also argued that psychosocial stage changes stem from the individual’s
interactions with his/her social context.
Discuss the similarities and
differences between Freud's and Erikson’s theories with the class. In the class
discussion, have students isolate the most important differences and present
the historic break between Freud and Erickson.
3. How
Do Children Learn?
Piaget and Skinner are both behavioral
theorists with different key areas of focus. Point out the different questions
each theorist asks and how these questions relate to their theories. For
example, Piaget and Skinner ask, “How do children learn?” but the question
means different things to each theorist.
Piaget’s Focus:
·
Cognitive structure
·
Structure of the thinking process
·
Asks why children think the way they do
Skinner’s Focus:
·
Environment and how it controls the
learning process
·
Cannot look into the “black box” of the
mind
Think about the following questions:
1. Can the child tell him why the moon
appears to follow him when he walks down the country lane?
2.
Can
the child provide reasons for the difference in the water levels as the liquid
is poured from the tall, thin vessel into the short, wide vessel?
How would Piaget address these
questions?
Piaget wants to understand how a child
mentally conceptualizes his or her environment. To Piaget, the question means: How
does the mind organize information as the child interacts with the environment?
How would Skinner address these
questions?
Skinner wants to understand how the
environment can be modified to reinforce the child’s behavior. To Skinner, the
question means: How can the child be reinforced so that he or she consistently
and correctly states that the moon appears to follow the person down the lane
because of the influence of the great distance between the moon and the child?
How can I change the environment so as to demonstrate for the child that the
volume of water does not change when the shape of the container changes?
The structure of the mind interests
Piaget, whereas the observed behavior that it produces interests Skinner. This
basic difference may be at the heart of the differences in the approaches,
questions, and methods of each theorist in examining the question “How do
children learn?”
4. The
A,B,Cs of Behaviorism
Behaviorism is the foundation for
Skinner’s operant conditioning and Bandura’s social learning theory. This
theory states that behavior is controlled by that which reinforces or punishes,
whether directly experienced or observed, respectively. To assist students in
the remembrance of basic principles, present the operant sequence as “A,B,Cs of behaviorism.”
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The sequence helps to focus on the
consequences and the increase or decrease in target behavior defining
reinforcement and punishment, respectively. For example, students take an exam
and get a grade; when an adolescent cuts classes, he/she has to stay after school;
when an employee completes his/her time on a job, the worker gets paid, but
when he/she does not work (without an acceptable reason) he or she gets fired.
5. Basic
Operant Conditioning Principles
In operant conditioning, behavior is
controlled by its consequences. When a student prepares well and performs well
on an exam, he/she gets a good grade; when an adolescent cuts classes, she has
to stay after school; when a driver parks illegally, he gets fined; when a
cardholder returns overdue library books, she gets fined; and when we speed, we
get a ticket. The probability of behavior occurring again depends on the
consequences that follow that behavior.
Rewards, or reinforcers, follow some
behaviors. Reinforcement results in an increase in a particular behavior. When
a student prepares well in advance for an exam and receives a good grade, the
good grade reinforces his studying behavior, and he is likely to continue this
behavior in the future. If a woman responds with donations to a community
request for help with a clothing drive for the homeless, she may receive praise
for being part of that effort, and that praise will reinforce her helping
behavior; she is likely to help with a future clothing drive.
Punishment follows some behaviors, and
punishments can result in a decrease in those behaviors. If a driver carelessly
parks her car in an illegal lane and receives a $25 fine, she may be less
likely to park in that spot in the future.
Students often misunderstand the
difference between negative reinforcement and punishment. A negative
reinforcement removes an aversive
stimulus, which results in the probability that the behavior will occur again,
whereas a punishment produces an
aversive stimulus, thus resulting in a decrease in the behavior.
Students should be able to recognize
the difficulty of controlling behavior. It is often difficult to grasp why
individuals continue certain behaviors. Discussion of antecedents, behaviors,
and consequences of those behaviors for selected populations (such as juvenile
delinquents) and treatments (such as token economies) may help students
understand the laws of learning principles.
6. Ripples
in the Water
In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological
model, reciprocal interaction between a person and his/her environment takes
center stage. How is that like the Developmental Systems Theory? How does it
differ?
When a student prepares by studying and
performs well in school, how might that have an influence on his/her classes,
teacher, school, etc.? What might each of these theories say about the infinite
possibility of influence?
Compare an individual’s influence on
his/her environment to the ripples made by a single stone cast into a lake. How
then does the lake influence the stone? What other factors might play a role?
7. Future Theorists: "Where Do We Go
from Here?"
The quest for understanding human development encompasses
many theories. A frequent criticism of previous developmental theorists like
Freud and Piaget suggests their theories were too "one-sided." That
is, examining just one or two aspects of the biopsychosocial model cannot
unravel human development. Rather, new studies suggest that we must factor in
other genetic, neural, behavioral, and environmental conditions to grasp a
better understanding of development. Lerner, for example, takes his developmental
systems theory beyond the biopsychosocial model. Lerner theorizes that we
construct our view of the world by reciprocal actions of biopsychosocial
characteristics with the environment.
Discuss Lerner's theory of development with students. Have
students create their own theories on human development. Incorporate
information from other theorists. Explore the influences of variables like
interactions between individuals and the environment, the effect of change, time
and levels. Spend some class time brainstorming and experimenting with new
ideas. Create a unique theory of development.
Classroom or Student Activities
1. Schedules
of Reinforcement
In the real world, behaviors are not
reinforced every time they occur. Rather than being reinforced continuously,
most behaviors are reinforced on a partial, or intermittent, schedule.
Schedules
of reinforcement refers to when behavior is to be
reinforced. Schedules of reinforcement have two dimensions. One dimension focuses
on whether reinforcement is delivered after a specified number of responses or
a specific amount of time (called a fixed
schedule) or by an average number
of responses or amount of time (called a variable
schedule). An individual also can be reinforced on the number of responses
(a ratio schedule) or on the amount of time that elapses (an interval
schedule). The intermittent reinforcement schedule is based on an irregular
schedule of reward, so that the behavior (operant) never knows when to expect the
payoff. Intermittent reinforcement schedules are the most persistent in
increasing behavior and prolonging its demonstration.
Students can more easily understand the
impact of different schedules of reinforcement if they identify aspects of
their own lives that fit each of the four schedules. For example, if a course
grade is determined by students’ scores on 10 “pop” quizzes given throughout
the semester, the grade is given in terms of a variable interval schedule. Ask
students how this type of schedule influences studying patterns. (Typically,
one learns to study a “little” regularly to maximize results.) Students are on
a fixed interval schedule if another instructor gives a test every ninth class
period. Ask students how this pattern influences studying patterns (typically,
more studying occurs in the few days right before a test and little immediately
after a test). Ask students to think of ways in which they are on a ratio
schedule. Ask students what they can do to reinforce themselves to avoid disadvantages
of the schedule used by the course grading system.
It also is helpful to discuss schedules
of reinforcement in terms of other life experiences (e.g., dieting, leisure
activities, gardening, and dating). Ask students whether behavior is likely to persist
or become extinguished after a particular schedule of reinforcement. Discuss
the importance of schedules in maintaining desirable behaviors.
2. Biopsychosocial Theory and Model
Think
about the biopsychosocial theory model of a great tennis player. For instance,
Anna is a 21-year-old college student in Florida. She was awarded a full
scholarship to the University to play on the tennis team. Since being on the
team, Anna has been seeded as one of the top players in her division. Listed
are some of her biological, psychological, and sociological influences and how
they contribute to her success as a tennis player.
·
Biological—strength, muscle fibers, joint
flexibility, hand-eye coordination.
·
Psychological—is “daddy’s little girl,” constant
praise, highly admired.
·
Sociological—family has economic means to pay for
tennis lessons, club membership,
equipment, etc.
All
three factors combine to help Anna be the best possible tennis player she can
be. Her background suggests an ideal model for biopsychosocial theory. Many of
the theorists discussed in this chapter only address two out of the three
factors.
Have
students compose their own biopsychosocial theory of sympathy. What are the
biology, psychology, and sociology of a sympathetic person? How is this theory
different from the psychosocial theory and from the cognitive developmental
theory?
3. Search
the Literature
Based on the information on
psychoanalytic theory described in the text in this chapter and the information
on research design in Chapter 1, ask students if they can think of any studies
that would indicate that Freud was right about defense mechanisms. Ask students
to conduct a literature search using appropriate software to locate articles
examining Freud’s theory of defense mechanisms. What are the findings? Compare
findings from different studies.
4. Finding
Contexts in Development
Provide a review of Gottlieb’s levels
of interaction that influence development (e.g., genetic, neural, behavioral,
and environmental). Remind students that these levels are bidirectional, with
each level dependent on the next and influenced by the next level for the
production of a behavior or trait. Then review Lerner’s concept of
developmental contextualism, with the four major forces in development (i.e.,
physical settings, social influences, personal characteristics, and influence
of time).
Each group of students should pick a
developmental event (e.g., walking, learning to read). Half of the groups
should analyze their topic using Gottlieb’s levels and determine how those
processes would produce a behavior or trait. The remaining groups should use
Lerner’s forces. After taking time to reorganize their thoughts, the students
may present their conclusions and, in a class setting, contrast and compare these
approaches. They may then evaluate the models for completeness in describing
the developmental process. Their evaluations should include comparisons with a
strict biological or environmental explanation. This activity allows students
to internalize the richness and accuracy of interactions rather than adherence
to a unidirectional dichotomy of nature versus nurture alone.
Questions for Review and Discussion
1. What
is the purpose of organizational framework of theories?
2. How do theories guide research?
3. Where would you look for the
theoretical foundation of a study in a research report (e.g., empirical article)?
4. Identify
Freud’s three structures of the psyche and explain the role of each. How does
each structure relate to the other two?
5. Examine
the defense mechanisms and give an example.
6. What
are Freud’s stages of personality development and the possible outcomes for
each?
7. Where
are you in Erikson’s stages of development? Does his concept of crisis for that
stage “fit” you? Please explain why it does or does not seem realistic.
8. What
are examples of egocentrism in our behavior? Describe the behavior, and explain
how it matches Piaget’s definition of egocentrism.
9. Explore
how assimilation and accommodation work as a child tries to understand the
world.
10. Consider
your own theory of cognitive development. What are some of the assumptions you
make about ways in which other people’s behavior is affected by their beliefs,
emotions, or ideas? How do your assumptions fit into a cultural contextual
model of cognitive development?
11. Provide
examples of positive and negative reinforcement that parents can use to
encourage healthy development in their children.
12. How
does the future of research embrace both aspects of individual growth: biological
predispositions of heredity and the psychosocial aspects of the environment?
13. Where did Systems Theory begin? How does
this and bioecological interaction better explain individual development? Or does it?
Website Resources
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Child Development Resources
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Child Development
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Developmental Psychology
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Society for Research in Adolescence
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Society for Research on Adult Development
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Additional Reading: Lifespan Development Guide for Thought
Papers
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Urie Bronfenbrenner: Ecological
Theory
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